Characteristic features of the Basseri of Iran. Its first part will identify and classify “pastoralism” as the Basseri culture’s primary mode of subsistence. He second part will show that “tribal chiefship” is underlies the organization of the Basseri society. Furthermore it will show that agriculture and trading determine the Basseri economic organization. Finally, as regards to gender relations, the paper will point out that the importance of the male contribution to subsistence in sheep herding leads to an emphasis on male social roles and patrilineality
Identify and classify the selected culture’s primary mode of subsistence
The Basseri are a prime example of a pastoral tribe that is not self-sufficient (Pastoralism, p. 2). They are a tribe of nomads who inhabit the Iranian province of Fars and migrate along the steppes and mountains near the town of Shiraz (Johnson (1996), p. 1). In general, societies specializing in animal husbandry requiring periodic movement are called pastoral nomads (Barfield (1984), p. 1. Nomadic pastoral societies can be classified as those in which animal husbandry is viewed as an ideal way of making a living and in which movement of all or part of the society is considered a normal and natural part of life (Barfield (1984), p. 2).
Pastoralists maintain herds of animals and use their products to support themselves directly and to exchange with other civilizations. It is especially associated with such terrain as steppes, rolling hills. Grasslands, and the like-areas of low rainfall where cultivation is difficult without irrigation, but where grasses are plentiful enough to support herds of animals. Pastoralism was originally founded in the old world. Pastoralists are generally nomadic and follow their herds in search of food and water (Pastoralism, p. 1).
The Basseri nomad pastoralists raise sheep, goats, donkeys, and camels, and dogs. The sheep are a special breed adapted to this migratory life, less adapted to climate extremes than either those living the year round on mountains or plain, but larger than either, and more productive. If these sheep are not moved twice a year, 70% to 80% will die (see Coon (1962), p. 636). T he donkeys are for transport and riding (mainly by women and children) and draft work. Camels are for heavy transport and wool, and dogs for keeping watch in camp. Poultry are sometimes kept as a source of meat, but not for eggs. Cattle are not herded because of the long migrations and the rocky terrain (Johnson (1996),
p. 2). The donkeys and camels are employed for draft work, and the wealthier men have horses for riding. The Basseri have a specified route and schedule that they follow. The route refers to the localities in the order they are visited and follows the existing passes and lines of communication. Along these routes it is considered the right of a tribesman to graze his flocks in uncultivated lands and draw water from all but private wells (Traditional pastoral societies, p. 10). The schedule regulates the length of time each location will be occupied and depends on the maturation of different pastures and the movements of other tribes (Pastoralism, p. 2).
Explain the impact that the primary mode of subsistence has on at least three of the following aspects of culture
I have chosen to focus on the following three aspects of Basseri culture: Social organization, economic organization, and gender relations.
Social Organization
The primary social unit of Basseri society is the group of people who share a tent. The Basseri keep a count of their numbers and describe their camp groups in terms of “tents” (sing, khune, “house”). Each tent is occupied by an independent household, typically consistent of a nuclear family. The individual in Basseri society is not what we may consider an individual to be by Western standards. An individual is no one person, but the elementary family unit that lives together in a common tent (Traditional pastoral societies, p. 11). Tents are units of production and consumption. Each is represented by its male head (Johnson (1996, p. 2). The head deals with the formal officers of the tribe, villagers, and other strangers. The head is usually the husband of the family, but can also be the senior male. The authority of headmen is derived from agnatic kinship in a ramifying descent system, as well as from matrilateral and affinal relations (Johnson (1996), p. 3). A woman may only be regarded as head if she is widowed and there are no males present, but even in that case, the woman must have a male relative represent her (Johnson (1996), p. 2). Tent residents hold rights over all moveable property including flocks, and they can act as independent units for political purposes. For purposes of more efficient herding, these households combine in small herding units, the composition of which depends on expediency rather than kinship or other basic principles of organization (Johnson (1996), p. 2). In winter, groups of two to five tents associated in herding units make up local camps separated by 3 or 4 kilometers from the next group. At all other times of the year, camps are larger — usually numbering ten to forty tents. These camps are in a very real sense the primary communities of nomadic Basseri society. The members of a camp are a clearly bounded group (Johnson (1996), p. 2). Their relations to each other as continuing neighbors are relatively constant, whereas all other contacts are passing, ephemeral and governed by chance (Johnson (1996), p. 3). The maintenance of a camp as a social unit requires daily unanimous agreement on questions of migration, the selection of campsites, and all other economically vital considerations (Johnson (1996), p. 3). Where no headman resides in camp, informal leaders (sing, riz safid, lit., “white beard”), by common consent are recognized to represent their camp in the same way as a headman does but without the formal recognition of the Basseri chief (Johnson (1996), p. 3).
The central authority that enforces and organizes the migratory routes is based around a chief. This chief is the embodiment of what is known the corporate body of the Basseri. A chief holds a unique position among the Basseri as being the only member of the tribe that makes decisions beyond what concerns his tent (Traditional Pastoral Societies, p. 10). The relations between the tribesmen and the outside world are both political and economic. The chief takes care of the political ones, but economic exchanges and disputes, as over crop damage by migrating animals, are the affairs of the individuals involved (see Coon (1962), p. 637).
The Basseri chief is the head of a very strongly centralized political system and has immense authority over all members of the Basseri tribe. The authority of the Basseri chief is exercised regularly in three fields: Allotting pastures and coordinating the migrations of the tribe; settling the disputes that are brought to him; and representing the tribe or any of its members in politically important dealings with sedentary authorities (see Salzman (2000), p. 51). There are not any institutions of coercion available to the chief, no tribal police or military unit under his control (see Salzman ibid). He is able to maintain his position due to the fact that the ordinary Basseri tribesmen — the commoners who make up the great bulk of the pastoral nomads — are socially, economically, and politically fragmented, effectively leaderless at the local level, and are thus unable to unite in common political purpose to oppose their chief, to whom they consequently remain subordinate and obedient. The omnipotent chief, drawing upon his wealth, status, and contacts with outsiders, commands his tribesmen in an authoritative and autocratic fashion (see Salzman, p. 52).
The chief, in his dealing with the headmen, draws on their power and influence but does not delegate any of his own power back to them. Some material goods — mostly gifts of some economic and prestige value, such as riding horses and weapons — flow from the chief to the headmen. A headman is a politically convenient position: He can communicate much more freely with the chief than any other tribesmen, and thus can bring up cases that are to his own advantage and, to some extent, block or delay the discussion of matters detrimental to his own interests. Nonetheless, the political power that a headman derives from the chief is very limited (Johnson (1996), p. 2). He holds the right to administer taxation and regulate land use. Below this executive position there are headmen, which represent the different oulads that make up the tribe. The headmen can be equated to a camp leader in his camp, but is also responsible for the other camps designated within his oulad. The actual communities the Basseri live in though are the level of separate camps, differing components of an oulad. An individual’s membership in his respective oulas is a result of his patrilineal decent and gives him right to land allotted by the chief. This right is however limited only to that tribesman’s assigned migration route and time. He may not graze freely, preventing different sections from utilizing the same location at the same time (Traditional Pastoral Societies, p. 11). While land of the Basseri can be considered a corporate entity, the livestock can be considered an individual possession (Traditional pastoral societies (2003) ibid).
The structure of the Basseri tribe maintains both order and flexibility to efficiently utilize their land. At a macro view, the Basseri are controlled by the corporate body that manages the land properly. The ecology of the land only allows for a limited utilization that cannot be sustained over time. The power of the corporate body regulates land usage to ensure that it is not over exploited. On a smaller scale, the Basseri operate on their own managing livestock in the way they see fit within the bounds of their oulad. Through the management of the corporate body, the individuals avoid the tragedy of the commons. If allowed to move freely with their livestock, the individual tents will only act in their own interest and the resources at their disposal will be depleted (Traditional pastoral societies, pp. 12f.).
Economic Organization
Agriculture and trading are a very important aspect to the lives of the Basseri.
Agriculture is the main essence of the Basseri population. The tribe depends on extensive use of seasonal pastures (George (2003), p. 1). The necessity of an exchange relationship between pastoralists and their settled neighbors is an essential characteristic of pastoralism (see Bradburd (1996), p. 1). Although the Basseri keep a variety of domesticated animals, sheep and goats have the greatest economic importance. Sheep and goats provide mil, meat, wool, and hides. Camels provide only wool. These products are consumed immediately, stored for later consumption, or traded (Johnson (1996), p. 2). The nomads’ most important products are milk, lambskins, and wool in that order. The Basseri spin, weave wool, and goat-hair, and make their own tent poles, pack-saddles, and cordage. The rest of their equipment is bought from townsmen and gypsies, their vegetable food from villagers. Some of the (wealthier) Basseri own village lands from which they receive their share of crops (See Coon (1962), p. 636). The livestock owned by the members of the tent produces the food and economic capital the family uses for subsistence (Traditional pastoral societies, p. 11). The economic unit is the tent, usually containing a husband, wife, and children plus or minus other dependents. The tent owns about 100 sheep and ten donkeys, and the sheep are tended by a boy, either a member of the household or a hired herdsman (see Coon (1962), p. 636).
Basseri practice agriculture indirectly. However, most tribesman most obtain through trade the necessities and luxury items that are not produced within the community. The staple items they sell are butter, wool, lambskins, rope, and occasionally livestock. If they do not raise vegetables or some type of food they will usually acquire them through trade (Pastoralism, p. 2). Hunting and gathering play no major role in their economy though hunting is a popular sport among the men (Pastoralism, p. 2).
Gender Relations
Labor in a tent is divided among the household members by sex and age, but few tasks are rigidly allotted to only one sex or one age. There are three categories of tasks: Domestic work, daily cycle of migration, and the tending and herding of animals. Domestic tasks are mainly done by woman and girls. They prepare the food, wash and mend the clothes, and do the spinning and weaving. The men and boys provide the wood and water. Of primary importance is the male contribution to subsistence in sheep herding, since the animals need to be carried around and protected against wolves. The importance of the male contribution to sheep herding leads to an emphasis on male social roles and patrilineality (Pastoralists, p. 57). Males sometimes participate in preparing food, and washing their clothes, but are ridiculed for even pursuing in spinning and weaving. They also do most of the repairs of the equipment and tent (George (2003),
p. 2).
A marriage is a transaction between kin groups constituting whole households, and not merely between contracting spouses. The head of a household, or tent, holds the authority to make marriage contracts for the members of his household. A married man may arrange subsequent marriages for himself, whereas all women and unmarried boys are subject to the authority of a marriage guardian, who is the head of their household. The marriage contract is often drawn up and written by a nontribal ritual specialist, or holy man. It stipulates certain bride-payments for the girl and the domestic equipment she is expected to bring, and the divorce or widow insurance, which is a prearranged share of the husband’s estate, payable upon divorce or in the event of death. Marriage occurs between the age of sixteen and twenty years for females, but males may be much older than that. The father of the bride usually equips his daughter with a number of household items. Where a household was established by marriage, the groom’s father gave the household an “anticipatory inheritance” — the groom received from his father’s herd the arithmetic fraction that he would receive as an heir if his father were to die at that moment. From then on, the new household was on its own. If its herds failed, it received no second inheritance, nor was it lent animals to help it maintain itself (Johnson (1996), p. 4). The mothers of the couple usually get together and weave the tent in which they are to live in. The woman joins her husband in the tent and an independent economic unit is formed. Inside the household, distribution of authority between men and women is nearly equal. They share the responsibility of making decisions that will greatly affect the family in the domestic domain and in that aspect. The average number of children a couple has varies from three to five. Herbal medicines may be utilized as birth control, but only if a woman has had many children (George (2003), p. 2).
As is commonly the case in the Middle East, the agnatic lines of the Basseri are predominantly in matters of succession. The son of a Basseri is regarded as Basseri even though his mother may be from another tribe or village. On the other hand, when a Basseri woman marries outside the tribe she transmits no rights in the tribe to her offspring. Although patrilineal kinship unites larger kin-based groups, bonds of solidarity also tie matrikin together. For example, the relation between a mother’s brother and a sister’s child is an indulgent one among the Basseri. Affinal relations are also regarded as relations of solidarity and kinship. They appear to be most effective in establishing political bonds between tents (Basseri, p. 2).
Conclusion
The paper has shown that the Basseri culture is one of pastoral nomads who inhabit the Southern part of Iran. It has pointed out that “tribal chiefship” is the organizational base of the Basseri society. It has furthermore shown that rather than being subsistence producing, livestock lovers, sheep-herding Basseri are market-oriented and instrumentally-minded in their pastoral production. Finally, it has illustrated that Basseri gender relations are characterized by an emphasis on male social roles and patrilineality.
List of References
Barfield, T. (1984). Nomads: Stopped in their tracks? 1-5. Accessed 2 October 2011.Cached — Similar
Basseri. 1-3. Accessed 2 October 2011.
Bradburd, D.A. (1996). Toward an understanding of the economics of pastoralism: the balance of exchange between pastoralist and non-pastoralist in West-Iran 1815-1975.
1-3. Article from: Human Ecology: An Interdisciplinary Journal | March 1, 1996.
Accessed 2 October 2011.Cached – Similar
<usiness.highbeam.com/…/toward-understanding-economics-pastoral>Cached.
Coon, C.S. (1962). Book Review of Barth, F. (1961): Nomads of South Persia: The Basseri Tribe of the Kkamseh Confederacy. 637-638. Universitets Etnografiske Museum, Oslo, Bulletin No. 8.) Oslo, Norway: Oslo University Press.
Accessed 2 October 2011.
George, J. (2003). Basseri. Derived 2 October 2011.
Cached
Johnson, Ronald. (1996). “Basseri.” Encyclopedia of World Cultures.
Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2 Oct. 2011
.
Pastoralists. 57-60. Accessed 2 October 2011.
Pastoralism .1-3. Accessed 2 October 2011.
Cached
Salzman, P.C. (2000). Hierarchical Image and Reality: The Construction of a Tribal chiefship. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 42, No. 1 (Jan., 2000),
pp. 49-66. Accessed 2 October 2011.
Similar
Traditional pastoral societies and their impact on the environment 82. 1-16. Accessed 2 October 2011.
… > Cultural Customs and Traditions>
Cached – Similar
Get Professional Assignment Help Cheaply
Are you busy and do not have time to handle your assignment? Are you scared that your paper will not make the grade? Do you have responsibilities that may hinder you from turning in your assignment on time? Are you tired and can barely handle your assignment? Are your grades inconsistent?
Whichever your reason is, it is valid! You can get professional academic help from our service at affordable rates. We have a team of professional academic writers who can handle all your assignments.
Why Choose Our Academic Writing Service?
- Plagiarism free papers
- Timely delivery
- Any deadline
- Skilled, Experienced Native English Writers
- Subject-relevant academic writer
- Adherence to paper instructions
- Ability to tackle bulk assignments
- Reasonable prices
- 24/7 Customer Support
- Get superb grades consistently
Online Academic Help With Different Subjects
Literature
Students barely have time to read. We got you! Have your literature essay or book review written without having the hassle of reading the book. You can get your literature paper custom-written for you by our literature specialists.
Finance
Do you struggle with finance? No need to torture yourself if finance is not your cup of tea. You can order your finance paper from our academic writing service and get 100% original work from competent finance experts.
Computer science
Computer science is a tough subject. Fortunately, our computer science experts are up to the match. No need to stress and have sleepless nights. Our academic writers will tackle all your computer science assignments and deliver them on time. Let us handle all your python, java, ruby, JavaScript, php , C+ assignments!
Psychology
While psychology may be an interesting subject, you may lack sufficient time to handle your assignments. Don’t despair; by using our academic writing service, you can be assured of perfect grades. Moreover, your grades will be consistent.
Engineering
Engineering is quite a demanding subject. Students face a lot of pressure and barely have enough time to do what they love to do. Our academic writing service got you covered! Our engineering specialists follow the paper instructions and ensure timely delivery of the paper.
Nursing
In the nursing course, you may have difficulties with literature reviews, annotated bibliographies, critical essays, and other assignments. Our nursing assignment writers will offer you professional nursing paper help at low prices.
Sociology
Truth be told, sociology papers can be quite exhausting. Our academic writing service relieves you of fatigue, pressure, and stress. You can relax and have peace of mind as our academic writers handle your sociology assignment.
Business
We take pride in having some of the best business writers in the industry. Our business writers have a lot of experience in the field. They are reliable, and you can be assured of a high-grade paper. They are able to handle business papers of any subject, length, deadline, and difficulty!
Statistics
We boast of having some of the most experienced statistics experts in the industry. Our statistics experts have diverse skills, expertise, and knowledge to handle any kind of assignment. They have access to all kinds of software to get your assignment done.
Law
Writing a law essay may prove to be an insurmountable obstacle, especially when you need to know the peculiarities of the legislative framework. Take advantage of our top-notch law specialists and get superb grades and 100% satisfaction.
What discipline/subjects do you deal in?
We have highlighted some of the most popular subjects we handle above. Those are just a tip of the iceberg. We deal in all academic disciplines since our writers are as diverse. They have been drawn from across all disciplines, and orders are assigned to those writers believed to be the best in the field. In a nutshell, there is no task we cannot handle; all you need to do is place your order with us. As long as your instructions are clear, just trust we shall deliver irrespective of the discipline.
Are your writers competent enough to handle my paper?
Our essay writers are graduates with bachelor's, masters, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The minimum requirement to be an essay writer with our essay writing service is to have a college degree. All our academic writers have a minimum of two years of academic writing. We have a stringent recruitment process to ensure that we get only the most competent essay writers in the industry. We also ensure that the writers are handsomely compensated for their value. The majority of our writers are native English speakers. As such, the fluency of language and grammar is impeccable.
What if I don’t like the paper?
There is a very low likelihood that you won’t like the paper.
Reasons being:
- When assigning your order, we match the paper’s discipline with the writer’s field/specialization. Since all our writers are graduates, we match the paper’s subject with the field the writer studied. For instance, if it’s a nursing paper, only a nursing graduate and writer will handle it. Furthermore, all our writers have academic writing experience and top-notch research skills.
- We have a quality assurance that reviews the paper before it gets to you. As such, we ensure that you get a paper that meets the required standard and will most definitely make the grade.
In the event that you don’t like your paper:
- The writer will revise the paper up to your pleasing. You have unlimited revisions. You simply need to highlight what specifically you don’t like about the paper, and the writer will make the amendments. The paper will be revised until you are satisfied. Revisions are free of charge
- We will have a different writer write the paper from scratch.
- Last resort, if the above does not work, we will refund your money.
Will the professor find out I didn’t write the paper myself?
Not at all. All papers are written from scratch. There is no way your tutor or instructor will realize that you did not write the paper yourself. In fact, we recommend using our assignment help services for consistent results.
What if the paper is plagiarized?
We check all papers for plagiarism before we submit them. We use powerful plagiarism checking software such as SafeAssign, LopesWrite, and Turnitin. We also upload the plagiarism report so that you can review it. We understand that plagiarism is academic suicide. We would not take the risk of submitting plagiarized work and jeopardize your academic journey. Furthermore, we do not sell or use prewritten papers, and each paper is written from scratch.
When will I get my paper?
You determine when you get the paper by setting the deadline when placing the order. All papers are delivered within the deadline. We are well aware that we operate in a time-sensitive industry. As such, we have laid out strategies to ensure that the client receives the paper on time and they never miss the deadline. We understand that papers that are submitted late have some points deducted. We do not want you to miss any points due to late submission. We work on beating deadlines by huge margins in order to ensure that you have ample time to review the paper before you submit it.
Will anyone find out that I used your services?
We have a privacy and confidentiality policy that guides our work. We NEVER share any customer information with third parties. Noone will ever know that you used our assignment help services. It’s only between you and us. We are bound by our policies to protect the customer’s identity and information. All your information, such as your names, phone number, email, order information, and so on, are protected. We have robust security systems that ensure that your data is protected. Hacking our systems is close to impossible, and it has never happened.
How our Assignment Help Service Works
1. Place an order
You fill all the paper instructions in the order form. Make sure you include all the helpful materials so that our academic writers can deliver the perfect paper. It will also help to eliminate unnecessary revisions.
2. Pay for the order
Proceed to pay for the paper so that it can be assigned to one of our expert academic writers. The paper subject is matched with the writer’s area of specialization.
3. Track the progress
You communicate with the writer and know about the progress of the paper. The client can ask the writer for drafts of the paper. The client can upload extra material and include additional instructions from the lecturer. Receive a paper.
4. Download the paper
The paper is sent to your email and uploaded to your personal account. You also get a plagiarism report attached to your paper.
PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH US TODAY AND GET A PERFECT SCORE!!!
